The school of human relations appeared at the turn of the 20s and 30s. It was based on the achievements of psychology and sociology, which is why the problem of increasing labor productivity was solved by studying human behavior in the labor process. Scientists realized that by focusing their attention on the individual, they could offer methods for effectively stimulating work.
R. Owen was the first to draw people's attention. He argued that the company spends a lot of time on equipment maintenance (lubrication, repairs, etc.) and cares little about people. Therefore, it is quite reasonable to spend the same time on “care” for people (“living machines”), then, most likely, there will be no need to “repair” people.
E. Mayo is considered to be the founder of the school of human relations. He believed that previous management methods were entirely aimed at achieving material efficiency, and not at establishing cooperation, while simply paying attention to people had a very large impact on labor productivity.
Among other scientists in this direction, we can highlight M. P. Follett, who made a huge contribution to the theory of leadership.
Representatives of the school of human relations sought to consider each organization as a certain “social system,” which was a new step in the development of management theory.
The starting points of the theory of human relations include:
- people are primarily motivated by social needs and gain a sense of identity through their relationships with other people;
- as a result of the industrial revolution and the rationalization of the process, work itself has largely lost its attractiveness, so a person seeks satisfaction in relationships with other people;
- people are more responsive to the social influence of a group of peers than to incentives through control emanating from management;
- the employee responds to the manager's prompting if the manager is seen by the employee as a means of satisfying his needs.
The task of management at this stage was to ensure that, in addition to formal relationships (order-subordination), fruitful informal contacts develop between members of groups (teams). Informal relationships in the process of joint work were recognized as a significant organizational force that promotes/hinders the implementation of corporate goals. Therefore, informal relationships should be managed. If management cares about its employees, then the level of satisfaction should increase, which leads to increased productivity.
Later (40-60s of the 20th century), the ideas of the school of human relations formed the basis of the school of behavioral sciences, whose representatives were A. Maslow, McGregor, Herzberg, etc. Improvement of research methods in the field of sociology and psychology made it possible to study human behavior put it on a scientific basis in the labor process. The basis of the behavioral (behaviourist) approach to management is various aspects of social interaction, which led to the development of the theory and methods of forming a team as a special social community and interpersonal relationships within the organization. Particular importance is attached to management style and its impact on productivity and employee satisfaction with their work.
The founders of this school see the main tasks of management in the organization of personnel management, using the factors of communication, motivation, leadership, as well as maintaining an attitude towards personnel as active human resources. That is, they strive to improve the efficiency of the enterprise by increasing the efficiency of human resources.
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School of Human Relations in Modern Management
The concept of "human relations" - a new school of management theory - begins to develop in the 1930s. This school arose in response to the failure of the classical school to recognize the human factor as a fundamental element of effective organization and management.
Lack of attention to the human factor had a negative impact on the performance of “lean organizations”, which were unable to improve efficiency despite the availability of resources.
Elton Mayo (1880-1949), an employee of Harvard University, has a special place in the creation of the theory of “human relations”. This American sociologist and psychologist conducted a series of experiments called the “Hawthorne experiments.” Studying the influence of such factors as conditions, organization, wages, interpersonal relationships, leadership style, he concluded about the special role of the human factor in production.
The “Hawthorne experiments” laid the foundation for research into: relationships in organizations, taking into account psychological influences in groups, identifying motivation to work in interpersonal relationships, identifying the role of an individual and a small group in an organization.
Thus, the beginning of the use of sociology and sociological research in personnel management was laid, as opposed to the approach to the employee from the standpoint of biologism, when the employee’s resources such as physical strength, skills, intelligence are exploited (scientific and administrative schools of management), a member of the organization began to be considered from the point of view of the socio-psychological approach.
The motives for people’s actions are mainly not economic factors, as supporters of the scientific school of management believed, but various needs that can only be partially satisfied with money. According to W. White, which he expressed in the book “Money and Motivation,” the classical concept is based on three false assumptions:
Man is a rational animal seeking to maximize his economic benefits;
Each individual responds to economic stimuli as an isolated individual;
People, like machines, can be treated in a standardized way.
Mayo and his followers were convinced that the conflict between a person and an organization can be completely resolved if the social and psychological needs of workers are satisfied, and entrepreneurs will only benefit, since labor productivity increases sharply.
In general, the essence of the doctrine of “human relations” can be reduced to the following provisions:
Man is a “social animal” who can only be free and happy in a group;
A person’s work, if it is interesting and meaningful, can bring him no less pleasure than a game;
The average person strives for responsibility, and this quality must be used in production;
The role of economic forms of labor stimulation is limited, they are not the only and universal ones;
Production organization is, among other things, the sphere of satisfying human social needs, solving social problems of society;
To increase the efficiency of an organization, it is necessary to abandon management principles based on postulates of power relations, hierarchy, rigid programming, and labor specialization.
M. Follett (1868-1933) was a prominent representative of this school. Her main merit is that she tried to combine the ideas of three schools of management - scientific management, administrative and the school of human relations.
The essence of M. Follett’s concept is as follows:
As organizations become larger, the concept of “final or central authority” is replaced by the theory of “functional or pluralistic authority”;
It is impossible to solve problems of organizational activity and management of subordinates from a position of strength;
The psychological reaction of those receiving orders should be taken into account;
It is impossible to force workers to perform tasks satisfactorily if we limit ourselves only to demands, orders and persuasion;
The issuance of orders should be depersonalized, i.e., work should be organized so that both the boss and the subordinate follow what the situation requires.
Follett believed that conflict in work groups is not always destructive; in some cases it can be constructive. She identified three types of conflict resolution:
- “dominance” - victory of one side over the other;
- “compromise” - an agreement reached through mutual concessions;
- “integration” is the most constructive reconciliation of contradictions, in which neither side sacrifices anything and both sides benefit.
The effectiveness of management, according to supporters of the concept of “human relations”, is determined by: informal structure and, above all, a small group, interaction of workers, general control, self-discipline, opportunities for creative growth, collective reward, refusal of narrow specialization, refusal of unity of command, democratic leadership style, compliance of the organization's structure with employees, and not vice versa. Supporters of the concept of “human relations” were unanimous in the opinion that a rigid hierarchy of subordination and formalization of organizational processes are incompatible with human nature. Thus, the human relations school focused on the human factor in achieving organizational effectiveness. But the problem has not been fully resolved. The school of behavioral sciences diverged significantly from the school of human relations, focusing primarily on methods for establishing human relations. The main goal of the school was to increase the efficiency of the organization by increasing its human resources.
R. Likert, D. McGregor, A. Maslow, F. Herzberg are the most prominent representatives of the behavioral (behaviorist) direction. They studied various aspects of social interaction, motivation, the nature of power and authority, leadership, organizational structure, communication in the organization, changes in the content of work and quality of work life. According to A. Maslow, a person has one system (hierarchy) of needs, and according to F. Herzberg, two are qualitatively different and independent:
Actualization factors, or motivators, are work and all the recognition received thanks to it: achievement of success, recognition of merit, career advancement, interest in work, responsibility, opportunity for growth. The use of these factors makes it possible to achieve deep and time-stable changes in individual human behavior in the labor process. These are strong motivational incentives, the result is high-quality performance of work;
Atmospheric factors - working conditions and the environment: wages, job security, company policies and activities, working conditions, status, technical supervision, relationships with superiors, colleagues, subordinates, labor safety.
External factors can ease internal tension in an organization, but their influence is short-term and cannot lead to profound changes in employee behavior.
Herzberg considered the most powerful incentives for labor efficiency not “a good salary,” but interest in work and involvement in the work process. Without money, people feel unsatisfied, but with it they will not necessarily feel happy and increase their productivity.
Excessive division of work into fractional operations, according to Herzberg, deprives a person of a sense of completion and completeness of work, leads to a decrease in the level of responsibility, suppression of the employee’s actual abilities, a feeling of meaninglessness of work, and a drop in job satisfaction.
It is not the person who should be adapted to the work, but the work should correspond to the individual abilities of the person. This idea was subsequently embodied in adaptive, flexible organizations and network companies.
The main achievements of the school of behavioral sciences are:
Using interpersonal relationship management techniques to increase job satisfaction and productivity; labor management personnel
Applying the science of human behavior to shape the organization so that the full potential of each employee can be used;
It was concluded that in order to achieve effective management of a social organization, it is necessary to learn how to manage the behavior of people as members of this organization.
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Characteristics of the main stages of management development. Study of the formation and development of management schools: the school of scientific management and sports analogies, Taylorism, the administrative-functional school, the school of human relations and behavioral sciences.
The emergence of the schools of “human relations” and “organizational behavior” is a period of attempts to understand the place of people in production. Its founders argued that the main incentives for a person are not material wealth, but moral satisfaction, psychological comfort, self-satisfaction and other psychological motives. Within the framework of the human school, the science of human resources and personnel management was developing.
This school focused its attention on a person: on how he interacts with others, how he reacts to various kinds of situations, wanting to satisfy his needs. The school of “human relations” sought to build models of human behavior, how it differs from the classical one, which dealt with models of organization.
This scientific direction in management theory arose after it was discovered that labor regulation and high wages do not necessarily lead to increased productivity, as representatives of the school of scientific management believed.
A certain breakthrough in the field of management, marked by the emergence of the school of human relations (behavioral school), was made at the turn of the 30s. It is based on the achievements of psychology and sociology. Therefore, within the framework of this teaching, it was proposed that the management process should focus on the employee, and not on his task.
Significant contributions to the development of the school of “human relations” were made by E. Mayo, D. McGregor, A. Maslow, R. Likert, f. Herzberg, F. Roethlisberger, K. Argyris, whose works proclaimed the principles of the comprehensive development and comprehensive use by the organization of the abilities of employees, satisfying their diverse needs, using self-organization mechanisms, stimulating the processes of group dynamics, democratization of management, and humanization of work.
The founder of the new direction is considered to be the famous American sociologist and psychologist, Australian by birth, researcher of problems of organizational behavior and management in industrial organizations, as well as one of the founders of industrial sociology, Elton Mayo (1880-1949). Criticizing the classical theory of organization and management for a simplified view of the nature of human behavior in an organization, focusing on the priority of formalizing relationships and the hierarchical structure of the organization, Mayo questioned the effectiveness of the bureaucratic form of management and put forward the task of introducing methods of treating the employee as a “socio-psychological” being. Comparing an organization with a social system within which individuals, formal and informal groups interact, he considered its most important function to be the function of satisfying human social needs.
Mayo's scientific research was primarily associated with the research carried out in 1927 - 1932. a large-scale and long-term social experiment at one of the enterprises of the electrical engineering company Western Electric (near Chicago), the so-called Hawthorne experiment. In the course of five years of experiments, scientists from Harvard University proved that labor productivity is influenced not only by technical and economic, but also by socio-psychological factors (group cohesion, relationships with management, a favorable atmosphere in the workplace, job satisfaction, etc.).
Proponents of the doctrine of “human relations” have proven that the effectiveness of management is determined by the informal structure and, above all, a small group, the interaction of people and general control, self-discipline and opportunities for creative growth, collective rewards, the rejection of narrow specialization and unity of command, a democratic leadership style, compliance of the structure with people, and not the other way around. The worker’s awareness of belonging to a “team” or collective that works in improved conditions or conditions of “patronage” from the enterprise administration significantly increases the productivity of his work.
The social practice of the new doctrine was based on the principle proclaimed by Mayo of replacing individual reward with group (collective), economic - socio-psychological. New means of increasing labor productivity were also proposed, addressed to certain social groups and taking into account all their inherent psychological and social characteristics. The task of management, according to Mayo, was to limit the huge formal structures from below - bureaucratic monsters chasing material efficiency, and somehow curb them with an informal organization built on the principles of human solidarity and humanism.
E. Mayo and other representatives of the concept of “human relations” were generally very critical of the social environment of the so-called industrial society, noting that normal human relations are disrupted in it, cultural traditions are leveled, and the disunity and alienation of people is increasing. All this, in turn, leads to a violation of social stability. “If our social prowess (that is, our ability to secure cooperation between people) had progressed in parallel with our technical prowess, there would not have been another European war.”
A way out of the situation, in their opinion, could be the construction of new organizational relations that take into account the social and psychological aspects of people’s work activities and provide employees with a life filled with meaning. The organization must be people oriented rather than production oriented and the responsibility for the new direction and development of the organization rests with the top management.
E. Mayo and his followers argued that conflicts between a person and an organization can be completely resolved if the social and psychological needs of workers are adequately met. Moreover, the entrepreneur will only benefit from this, because Labor productivity will increase sharply.
Mayo formulated the following principles of management, which are as useful as they are practical:
- · a person has unique needs, requirements, goals and motives. Positive motivation requires that the worker be treated as an individual;
- · human problems cannot be simple;
- · personal or family problems of the worker may adversely affect productivity in the workplace;
- · Information exchange is of great importance, and effective information is a decisive factor.
D. Mayo increased the illumination of the workplace and noted a serious increase in productivity. Then, for scientific purposes, the experimenter reduced the lighting level, but productivity increased again. After numerous studies, it was concluded that labor productivity increases not because of the level of illumination, but because attention was simply paid to the performers. Apparently, due to the same circumstances, labor productivity in the control groups changed in exactly the same way, although the level of illumination there was not changed.
Representatives of the classical (administrative) school developed principles, recommendations and rules for managing an organization without taking into account the individual characteristics of employees. Such an interpretation of the place of man in production could not lead to a unity of interests of entrepreneurs and workers. Human relations theory aims to increase attention to people. It provides knowledge about how people interact and react to different situations in an effort to satisfy their needs. Unlike the classical school, which built models of organization, this school tried to build models of employee behavior.
Mayo argued that worker productivity depends not only on working conditions, material incentives and management actions, but also on the psychological climate among workers.
Representatives of this school questioned a number of provisions of the administrative school. For example, the maximum division of labor, which in practice led to the impoverishment of the content of labor, as well as coordination through hierarchy. They believed that directing power only from the top down was not effective. In this regard, coordination through commissions was proposed. They took a new approach to the principle of delegation of authority. We considered it as a two-way process. The lower levels of the organization must delegate upward the functions of administration and coordination of activities, and the upper levels must delegate downward the right to make decisions within the framework of their production functions.
The main provisions of the school of human relations:
- · people are mainly motivated by social needs and feel their own individuality through their relationships with other people;
- · as a result of the industrial revolution, work lost its attractiveness, so a person should seek satisfaction in social relationships;
- · people are more responsive to the social influence of a group of peers than to the incentives and controls coming from management;
- · the employee responds to the orders of the manager if the manager can satisfy the social needs of his subordinates.
The School of Human Relations made the following amendments to the previous management concepts:
- · increased attention to human social needs;
- · improving jobs by reducing the negative consequences of overspecialization;
- · rejection of the emphasis on the hierarchy of power and a call for employee participation in management;
- · increasing acceptance of informal relationships.
The School of Human Relations emphasized the collective. Therefore, by the beginning of the 1950s. in addition to it, behavioral concepts were formed aimed at studying and developing the individual capabilities and abilities of individual workers.
Mayo's views on the role of the relationship between employer and employees in the management process are called the theory of paternalism, which asserts the need for paternal concern for the interests of employees, “social partnership” in the process of labor relations. The theory of paternalism was criticized not only by Soviet but also by American science. American scientists argued that Mayo did not take into account the importance of competition among the workers themselves, the role of American individualism in industrial relations, and viewed man as a social animal subject to the laws of the “herd.”
In general, the essence of the doctrine of “human relations” can be reduced to the following provisions:
- · man is a “social animal” who can be free and happy only in a group;
- · a person’s work - if it is interesting and meaningful - can bring him no less pleasure than a game;
- · the average person strives for responsibility, and these qualities should be used in production;
- · the role of economic forms of labor stimulation is limited, they are not the only ones, much less universal;
- · production organization is, among other things, the sphere of satisfying human social needs, solving social problems of society;
- · to improve the efficiency of an organization, it is necessary to abandon management principles based on the postulates of power relations, hierarchy, rigid programming and specialization of labor.
The school of human relations appeared at the turn of the 20s and 30s. It was based on the achievements of psychology and sociology, which is why the problem of increasing labor productivity was solved by studying human behavior in the labor process.
The starting points of the theory of human relations include:
- people are primarily motivated by social needs and gain a sense of identity through their relationships with other people;
- as a result of the industrial revolution and the rationalization of the process, work itself has largely lost its attractiveness, so a person seeks satisfaction in relationships with other people;
- people are more responsive to the social influence of a group of peers than to incentives under the control emanating from management;
- the employee responds to the manager's prompting if the manager is seen by the employee as a means of satisfying his needs.
The founder of the school of human relations was an American psychologist and sociologist, researcher of problems of organizational behavior in industrial organizations. Elton George Mayo(26.12.1880-01.09.1949).
Under the leadership of Mayo was carried out " Hawthorne experiment", consisting of two areas of research.
The first stage was carried out between 1924 and 1927. and was called "Light Experiments". Its essence was that the workers were divided into two groups: working and experimental.
The work group carried out work in stable conditions. The experimental group was subjected to changes in working conditions, namely, the lighting changed.
The second stage was carried out between 1927 and 1932. and was called the "Assembly Test Site Experiment." It consisted of the six best employees in a special room assembling telephone relays. Their working conditions were constantly changing, and their body's reaction to these changes (body temperature, blood pressure) was studied.
The conclusions that were obtained during the study turned out to be very interesting.
As a result of the first experiment, it was possible to establish that lighting does not affect performance labor of workers, and the results of the second experiment made it possible to establish that changes in external factors have little effect on the body, however performance labor increases sharply from the fact that a person is respected, consulted with, and is an accomplice in a scientific experiment.
At the end of the Hawthorne Study, Mayo formulated 8 principles:
- Work is the activity of a group.
- The social world of a person is mainly determined by work activities.
- The need for recognition, security and a sense of belonging are more important in determining worker morale and productivity than the physical conditions of work.
- A complaint is not necessarily an objective listing of facts; it is usually a symptom that signifies interference with an individual's social status.
- A worker is a person whose opinion and effectiveness are determined by external and internal social factors.
- Informal groups have strong social control over the habits and opinions of workers.
- The transition from an initially established society to an adaptive one tends to destroy the social organization of the work of an enterprise and the entire industry as a whole.
- Cooperation in a group does not appear suddenly.
Sociologist, psychologist and management theorist Mary Parker Follett(09/03/1868 - 12/18/1933) was primarily a political scientist who supported the idea of creating contiguous groups, which she saw as the basic unit of self-government and the most effective way to achieve a just civil society characterized by higher productivity.
Exploring the problem of leadership, Follett places great emphasis on the influence of the situation on relationships between people.
Follett's theory states that leadership does not exist on its own, much less is it a static process involving one person. Leaders and followers are in some kind of relationship, hence it is a dynamic force between people. The role of a leader occurs when and where it is needed. When the problem is solved and the leader is no longer needed, leadership disappears.
Follett distinguishes 3 forms of conflict resolution:
- Dominance is the victory of one side over the other.
- Compromise is an agreement reached through mutual concessions.
- Integration is the most constructive reconciliation, when neither side sacrifices and both benefit.
German and American psychologist Hugo Munstrberg(07/01/1863-12/16/1916) proposed two principles for selecting managers:
The first principle was to answer the question: under what psychological conditions can the greatest and most satisfactory result be obtained from the work of each employee?
The second principle is to answer the question: how can an enterprise influence workers in order to get the greatest possible results from them?
Behavioral School of Management
The emergence of the behavioral school of management was predetermined by the following provisions:
- A sharp increase in the number of workers in the management system.
- Growing attention to the personality of the management system employee due to the deep differentiation of management workers.
- An increase in the number of employees of the enterprise with the advent of professional managers.
- The impact on the employee's position in the management system was the changes that occurred in the management itself.
Within the behavioral school of management, there are two areas of research:
- Research focused on interpersonal relationships and personality psychology.
- Research oriented to a sociological approach - research into group behavior.
The founder of the behavioral school of management was an American business practitioner Chester Irving Bernard(07.11.1886-07.06.1961).
Power, as Bernard understood it, contrary to popular belief, moves from the bottom up to the highest level of the organizational structure. The extent to which this power is perceived by subordinates depends on the following conditions:
- How far does the subordinate understand the meaning of the message coming from the manager? Often a manager has to interpret his command in order for the staff to understand him better.
- To what extent the order corresponds to the purpose of the organization.
- The extent to which the message is consistent with the personal needs of subordinates and the interests of the staff.
- What are the mental and physical abilities of the subordinate.
Quantitative School of Management
A key characteristic of management science (the quantitative school) is the replacement of verbal reasoning and descriptive analysis with models, symbols and quantitative values. Its representatives view management as a logical process that can be described in mathematical language.
The formalization of management functions, the integration of labor, people and computers required a revision of the structural elements of the organization (accounting services, planning, marketing, etc.). Methods of modeling, analysis under conditions of uncertainty, software assessments of multi-objective management decisions formed the basis of the forecasting function.
Administrative or classical school of management
The emergence, formation and development of this school took place in two directions: the rationalization of production and the study of management problems. The goal of this school was to create universal management principles, the implementation of which would certainly lead to success. The founders and active participants of this school were G. Emerson (1853–1931), A. Fayol (1841–1925), L. Urwick (1891–1983), M. Weber (1864–1920), G. Ford(1863–1947). Domestic scientists made a great contribution to the development of management science within the framework of this school. A.K. Gastev(1882–1941) and P.M. Kerzhentsev (1881–1940).
G. Emerson, in his main work “The Twelve Principles of Productivity” (1911), examines and formulates the principles of enterprise management. He introduced the concepts of productivity and production efficiency into management science. Efficiency is a concept that he introduced for the first time; he interpreted it as “the most beneficial relationship between total costs and economic results.”
G. Emerson raised and substantiated the question of the need and advisability of using systematic approach to solving complex multifaceted problems of production management and any activity in general.
The principles of productivity formulated by G. Emerson are:
· precisely set goals;
· common sense when analyzing a new process taking into account long-term goals;
· competent consultation, i.e. the need for special knowledge and competent advice;
· discipline, i.e. subordination of all team members to established rules and regulations;
· fast, reliable, complete and permanent accounting;
· process dispatching;
· norms and schedules;
· normalization of conditions;
· rationing of operations;
· written standard instructions;
· reward for performance.
Emerson also became famous for his studies of the staff principle in management. Supplementing the linear principle of building management of an organization with the staff principle, he believed that this principle was applicable not only to military organizations, but also to any types of them.
A. Faoyol, who formulated the basic functions of production management, which predetermined the tasks and content of management, also developed 14 principles applicable to any administrative activity:
· division of labor;
· power (authority) and responsibility;
· discipline;
· unity of management or unity of command;
· unity of leadership;
· subordination of private, personal interests to general ones;
· staff remuneration as payment for work performed;
· centralization;
· hierarchy or scalar chain;
· order;
· justice;
· consistency of personnel;
· initiatives;
· staff unity or corporate spirit.
Representative of the administrative school L. Urwick developed and deepened the main provisions A. Fayol. He formulated the basic elements of administrative activities: planning, organizing, staffing, directing, coordinating and budgeting. He paid special attention to the development of principles for building a formal organization that have not lost their relevance to this day:
· compliance of people with structure;
· creation of a special and general staff;
· comparability of rights and responsibilities;
· range of control;
· specialization;
· certainty.
If A. Fayol investigated functional aspect of management, then M. Weber developed
institutional aspect . His main work, “The Theory of Society and Economic Organization” (1920), is devoted to an analysis of the problem of leadership and the bureaucratic power structure in an organization. He identifies three main types of organizations depending on the nature of the power that the leader has: charismatic, traditional and bureaucratic.
Charismatic(from the Greek charisma - mercy, grace, exceptional talent) type of organization occurs when the leader has exceptional personal qualities.
Traditional the type of organization arises from the charismatic when there is a natural replacement of the leader and the members of the organization traditionally obey the leader who replaced the previous leader.
Bureaucratic type of organization (from French. bureaucratie- dominance of the office; literally translated - the power of the table) is a specific form of social organizations in society, the essence of which lies in the primacy of the form over the content of activity, in the subordination of the rules and tasks of the functioning of the organization to the goals of its preservation and strengthening. The bureaucratic type of organization is characterized by: specialized distribution of labor, a clear management hierarchy (subordination), rules and standards, performance evaluation indicators, principles of selection and placement of workers based on their competence.
M. Weber developed in particular detail the characteristics of the bureaucratic type of organization, which has the following main features:
· all activities of the organization are divided into the simplest elementary operations, the implementation of which is formally assigned to individual units;
· each manager is endowed with formally assigned power and authority, which operate only within the organization on the basis of the principle of hierarchy;
· a system of clear rules, instructions and standards that define the work procedure and responsibility of each member of the organization;
· any head of an organization must maintain the necessary “social distance” and must be impartial in relation to his clients and subordinates. Which promotes equal fair treatment of all persons;
· it is necessary that each member of the organization holds a position in accordance with his qualifications and is protected from the possibility of arbitrary dismissal, and the personnel promotion system can be built on the principle of duration of work, success of activities, or taking into account both factors.
Research in this direction has also been carried out in our country. So, A.A. Bogdanov in his work “Tektology: a general organizational science” (1913) noted that all types of organization and management in nature, society, and technology have common features. He tried to create a special organizational science, to define its subject and laws. Main categories. A number of developed by A.A. Bogdanov applies concepts and provisions to construct mathematical models of economic, organizational and management processes and in solving planning and economic problems.
Since the end of the 19th century, bureaucracy has been an important attribute of any large organization. The advantages of bureaucracy lie in the creation of rational structures with wide possibilities for their universal application to various social institutions. Although the bureaucratic form of management organization is often qualified as “inhuman and indifferent to human needs”, overly formalized, it is nevertheless an undoubted progressive step towards increasing the efficiency of organization management.
A characteristic feature of the bureaucratic structure of an organization is its “closedness in itself.” But bureaucratization in its negative sense is not inevitable. It becomes real only under conditions of monopoly, when economic control over the organization's management apparatus is weakened. World practice has experience in blocking the negative aspects of bureaucratization of economic life.
Thus, the principle of constructing organizational management structures is applied, called by American researchers “adhocracy” (from Lat. ad hoc- intended for this case), which refers to any organizational mechanisms created to solve problems that cannot be quickly and effectively resolved in the bureaucratic structure or “fail” and “get stuck” in this structure. The methods of “adhocracy” consist, in particular, in abandoning strict centralization of management, conducting parallel research and development, organizing intra-company competition, decentralizing production, and providing increased autonomy to branches and divisions.
An analysis of the activities of large companies using the “adhocracy” policy showed the following features and advantages: maintaining small sizes of enterprises and divisions, ease of management, constant personal contact between managers and staff, the absence of strict regulation, increasing the share and role of creative elements in management activities, the formation of a feeling “one family”, corporate spirit among all employees, etc.
However, with the development of society, there is a gradual transition from the command style of management, indirect, informal forms and methods of management are developing, which is manifested in the development of the school of human relations or the behavioral school of management.
In the 1920s - 1930s. under the influence of the ongoing transition from extensive to intensive management methods, there is a need to search for new forms of management that are more sensitive to the “human factor”. During these years the formation took place schools of human relations. Researchers of this school believed that if management shows more concern for their employees, then their level of job satisfaction increases, which contributes to increased productivity.
This is based on the correct motivation of workers. According to P. Drucker “Only human resources are capable of producing economic results. All other resources are subject to the laws of mechanics. They can be better used, but their output will never be greater than the sum of their outputs.”
The goal of the founders and supporters of this school was to try to manage using a system of socio-psychological factors and effectively influencing them.
The founder of this school Elton Mayo(1880–1949) believed that the organization has a unified social structure and the task of management is to, in addition to formal dependencies between members of the organization, develop fruitful informal connections that significantly influence the results of operations. E. Mayo based his conclusions on the Hauntor experiments conducted in working groups at the Hauntor plant of the Western Electric company in Chicago (USA) in 1924-1936, which made it possible to draw the following conclusions:
· the worker’s output is determined primarily by group norms rather than by his physical capabilities; these group norms are unwritten rules governing informal relationships (due to fears of social ostracism);
· workers more often act or make decisions as members of a group than individuals; their behavior in most cases is determined by group norms;
· the special importance of informal leaders for achieving the goals of the group, establishing and maintaining group norms, since the behavior of the leader is perceived as most consistent with the goals of the group.
The achievement of E. Mayo and his followers in the analysis of informal structure was proof of the need to expand the boundaries of organizational analysis beyond the boundaries of the job structure.
Within the framework of the school of human relations, a number of theories have been formed, among which the following can be distinguished.
Theories X and Y D. McGregor(1906–1964), who in the book “The Human Side of Enterprise” put forward in 1960 two provisions characterizing managers’ ideas about the attitude of workers to work.
« Theory X" consists in the idea that the average individual is dull, lazy, strives to avoid work at the first opportunity, therefore it is necessary to constantly force, direct, control, threaten with punishment so that he works hard to achieve the company's goals. The average person prefers to be constantly directed, seeks to avoid responsibility, is relatively unambitious, and is most concerned about his own safety and integrity.
« Theory Y“is based on the assumption that the expenditure of psychophysiological and physical effort of a person in the process of work is as natural as in games and on vacation. The average individual, given appropriate training and conditions, not only accepts responsibility, but strives for it. Such a person does not need external control; he is capable of self-control if he strives to achieve the goals in which he is interested.
Research has shown that representatives of each of these theories account for 30% of all employees. Despite the significant differences between these two psychotypes, they are united by the ineffectiveness of labor stimulation, since the first group reacts poorly to stimulation (under any conditions they do not like and do not want to engage in socially useful work), and the second group, whose representatives are usually called “workaholics,” do not need stimulation, at least materially, since the work itself gives them satisfaction.
And the remaining 40% are focused on socially useful work as a means and source of well-being for themselves and their family, and the effectiveness of their work largely depends on the effectiveness of stimulating their work.
F. Herzberg's theory of motivational hygiene set out in his book “Labor and the Essence of Man” (1960). It is based on the thesis that satisfying work contributes to a person’s psychophysiological health. This theory examines the factors that contribute to employee job satisfaction (work success, recognition of merit, degree of responsibility, career and professional growth). The presence of any of these factors or their combination enhances a person’s positive motives in the work process, increasing the person’s degree of job satisfaction.
Hierarchy of needs theory,stated A. Maslow in the book “Motivation and Personality” (1954), contains a classification of an individual’s goals and ranking them in order of importance. They identified five types of needs: physiological or basic (for food, clothing, housing), safety, belonging to a social group, self-respect, and self-affirmation. Maslow argued that people are “hungry creatures” seeking to satisfy unmet needs. This idea is confirmed by the famous specialist N. Hall, arguing that “a person has an unlimited desire to increase and satisfy needs.”
One of the areas of the school of human relations, based on the concept of the influence of human behavior on his productive and social life, decision making was behaviorism(from English behavior- behavior) is a psychological direction, which began with the publication in 1913 of an article by an American psychologist J. Watson"Psychology from a behaviorist's point of view." As a subject of psychology, it does not include the subjective world of a person, but objectively recorded characteristics of behavior caused by any external influences. The motto of behaviorism was the concept of behavior as an objectively observable system of reactions of the body to external and internal stimuli. This concept originated in Russian science in the works THEM. Sechenov, I. P. Pavlov and V. M. Bekhterev.
The most important categories of behaviorism are the stimulus, which is understood as any impact on the body from the environment, including this, the current situation, reaction and reinforcement, which for a person can also be the verbal or emotional reaction of people around him. Subjective experiences are not denied in modern behaviorism, but are placed in a position subordinate to these influences.
In this case, the connection between stimulus (S) and response (R) is postulated as a unit of behavior analysis. All responses can be divided into hereditary (reflexes, physiological reactions and elementary “emotions”) and acquired (habits, thinking, speech, complex emotions, social behavior), which are formed by linking (conditioning) hereditary reactions triggered by unconditioned stimuli with new ones (conditional) stimuli. Subsequently, “intermediate variables” (image, goal, need) appeared in the S–R scheme. Another version of the revision of classical behaviorism was the concept of operant behaviorism by B. Skinner, developed in the 30s. XX century, where the concept of reaction was modified. In general, behaviorism had a great influence on the development of psychotherapy, methods of programmed training, and management.
One of the pioneers of the behaviorist movement was Edward Thorndike. He himself called himself not a behaviorist, but a “connectionist” (from the English “ connection" - connection).
E. Thorndike took as the initial moment of a motor act not an external impulse that sets into motion a bodily machine with pre-prepared methods of response, but a problem situation, that is, such external conditions for adaptation to which the body does not have a ready-made formula for a motor response, but is forced to construct it on its own effort. So, the connection “situation - reaction”, in contrast to the reflex (in its only mechanistic interpretation known to E. Thorndike), was characterized by the following features: 1) the starting point is a problem situation; 2) the body resists it as a whole; 3) he actively acts in search of choice and 4) he learns through exercise.
The progressiveness of Thorndike's approach in comparison with the approach of Dewey and other Chicagoans is obvious, because they accepted the conscious pursuit of a goal not as a phenomenon that needs explanation, but as a causal principle. But Thorndike, having eliminated the conscious desire for a goal, retained the idea of active actions of the organism, the meaning of which is to solve a problem in order to adapt to the environment.