Perception is the process of a person receiving and processing various
information entering the brain through the senses.
Munsterberg Perception Test
Purpose of the study: to determine the selectivity of attention.
Equipment: assignment form.
Instructions: Among the alphabetic text there are words. Your task is to look through line by line to find these words as quickly as possible. Underline the words you find. Task completion time - 2 minutes.
Measuring Perceptual Volume
The purpose of the exercise is to determine the volume of visual perception in
depending on the degree of meaningfulness of the presented material.
The objects are sets of meaningless combinations of letters (8 letters per
set) and meaningful phrases (three words in each phrase). Total in experience
40 presentations, 20 for each object type, presented first
letters, then phrases. The test subject’s task is to reproduce in writing everything that
he was presented with.
Installation illusions
There is a certain type of illusion of perception, classical
examples of which are illusions of weight, volume, size.
The following features of situations and properties of emerging situations can be identified:
1. The subject is given the task of comparative assessment of the couple
objects according to any parameter: weight, volume, size.
2. The experience consists of two series: preliminary, or installation, and
main – control. The purpose of the preliminary series is to create
subject prerequisites for the emergence of illusions, the goal of the main series
- detect illusion.
3. In the preliminary series, a pair of obviously different
objects, in the control - a pair of identical ones.
4. In the control series, the subject usually makes an error in
direction of contrast: the object that appears smaller (lighter)
which in the installation series corresponded to the larger (heavier) one. IN
some cases (usually when there are small differences between objects in
preliminary series) there is an assimilative illusion: in
to the control pair, the object that is in
in the installation experiments, a larger (heavier) one also corresponded
The purpose of the exercise is to demonstrate the illusion of size.
The exercise consists of a preliminary and control series.
Preliminary series. The subject is presented within 1
seconds 2 circles of significantly different diameters. Task
test subject - compare the circles by size and indicate the larger one. Except
In addition, he evaluates the degree of confidence in the correctness of his answers based on 3
point scale:
3 – firmly confident;
2 – not entirely sure;
1 – not sure.
In the preliminary series, 8 identical samples are presented.
Control series. The subject is presented without warning
two identical circles, equal in diameter to the smaller circle in
preliminary series. The subject's task does not change. If he
decides on the equality of the circles, then gives the corresponding
answer. The control series also contains 8 samples.
Illusions of perception
1. Constancy of perception
Constancy of perception is the ability to perceive
objects are relatively constant in shape, size, color, etc., with
changing conditions of perception.
The dimensions of the cat shown in the upper picture in the distance, and in
lower - in the foreground, identical. Is this how your brain perceives it?
Organization of perception
The phenomena of perception were described and analyzed by the school
Gestalt psychology (M. Wertheimer, W. Köhler, K. Koffka).
The most important of these principles is that any image or
the object is perceived as a figure standing out against some background.
One of the innate features of the brain is to structure signals
in such a way that everything that is smaller or has a more correct
configuration, and most importantly, what has some meaning for us,
perceived as a figure; she appears against some background, and the background itself
is perceived as much less structured (Fig. 2).
However, the entire picture of perception is rebuilt as soon as another
the background element becomes significant in turn. Then what a second
before this, one could see how the figure was losing its clarity and getting mixed up with the general
Vase of Ruby. In this picture the background can be either black or
white. It depends on what a person perceives – a vase or 2 profiles.
Figure and ground are interchangeable: a figure can turn into a background, and a background into
Illusions of perception of complex objects
When a person perceives complex, meaningful images
the mechanism of influence of past experience and thinking is triggered, highlighting
in the perceived image the most informative places, based on
which, by correlating the information received with memory, it is possible to
create a holistic view.
Who do you see in the picture - an old woman or a young fashionista? Alone
they see the profile of a young woman, while others see the profile of an old woman. Each of
of those watching, some hypothesis appears, and the brain tries to confirm this
hypothesis by organizing different elements of the drawing in different ways.
Shape recognition
Purpose of the exercise: to study the processes of perception and recognition.
The experimenter presents the subject with a table with image 9
figures and invites you to carefully consider and remember these figures in
for 10 seconds. After which the subject is shown a second table, with
a large number of figures. The test subject must find among them
figures of the first table.
First instruction: “Now I will show you images of figures. You have
have 10 seconds to try to remember as many as possible
figures" (Fig. 5).
Second instruction: “In the following figure (Fig. 6) among
drawn figures you must choose those that you saw in the first
After the theoretical aspects of the concept of “perception” have been considered, let’s move on to the methodological ones, to what methods exist to measure perception. The need for such a methodological apparatus arose due to the fact that people realized that by studying the peculiarities of perception of the image of a particular object among various individuals or social groups, one can obtain valuable and interesting information for further analysis. Currently, multivariate statistical methods are adequate and, in fact, the only methods for solving the problem of assessing the similarities and differences between specific social groups and the attributes that describe them, arising on the basis of the object being studied. This group of methods became widespread in the early 80s, when algorithms, originally developed exclusively for large specialized computers, became available and adapted for personal computer users, and their use no longer required specific and highly specialized knowledge of programmers. In fact, the use of this group of statistical methods to study perception has formed a separate specific technique called perceptual maps. Perceptual maps involve a graphical representation of the similarities and differences between specific social groups in the context of the properties or attributes that describe them in a low-dimensional space. This approach to data analysis makes it possible to significantly simplify the task of comparing the perception of the object being studied by different social groups. The clarity of the graphical approach and the widespread use of statistical programs for analysis have led to an increase in the use of perceptual maps, as well as an increase in the problems solved with their help, and, accordingly, an increase in errors when choosing the right tools for constructing perceptual maps. In this regard, we will consider the conceptual and methodological features of the entire set of methods that allow the use of such a technique as perception maps.
Within the framework of the study of multivariate statistical methods, two groups of such methods can be distinguished: compositional and decompositional. Naturally, when constructing perception maps, the researcher must first determine which group of methods he needs to use. The design of the future study largely depends on this choice, since data collected using compositional methods cannot be processed using decomposition methods. So, compositional methods imply that in order to study the similarities and differences between specific individuals or social groups/categories, the researcher independently compiles a list of attributes, the degree of correspondence of which to the categories being studied and is asked to be compared by respondents. Accordingly, after statistical processing of the collected data, the studied social categories and the attributes describing them are graphically displayed in low-dimensional space. The position of the categories is determined in relation to the ratings they received from respondents for each of the attributes, on the basis of which the composition (formation) of the overall assessment of the proximity between the categories occurs. Next, we will consider the advantages and disadvantages of this group of methods. The most important advantage is the relative ease of interpretation of the resulting maps, since the analysis uses a pre-compiled list of attributes that are already logically and semantically consistent with each other. This list itself forms a certain space into which the categories under study are then placed, all of which greatly simplifies interpretation. Another advantage of the compositional group of methods is the fact that the categories and the attributes that describe them are placed in a single space. This allows you to clearly assess the position of each of the categories under study and its perception in relation to each attribute. Now let's talk about the disadvantages of this group of methods. The first is the use of a self-compiled list of descriptive attributes, since often some of the attributes used can distort the respondent’s holistic picture of perception, and the ready-made list of attributes will not reflect the entire cognitive system of the respondent (similar to the concept of a general population and a sample). Another disadvantage is the high dependence of compositional methods on the quality of the data obtained. Obviously, the quality of the initial data means their normal or close to it distribution, since any change in the sample in one direction or another will lead to a direct change in the final solution, which can mislead the researcher.
Now let's talk about the decomposition approach. In this group of methods, the respondent gives only a general assessment of the degree of similarity or difference between the categories being studied, guided only by his own decisions, and not by a pre-compiled list of attributes. The resulting distance matrix based on general estimates can be reflected in a low-dimensional space. Accordingly, we can talk about decomposing general assessments into the required number of dimensions to compare the categories being studied. Let's consider the advantages and disadvantages of decomposition methods. The main advantage is the fact that this group of methods allows you to obtain a certain “ideal” model of category perception, unlimited by a pre-created list of attributes. Accordingly, we can talk about a more accurate assessment than compositional methods. Another advantage is the small requirements for the original data array, since analysis requires, in fact, only the presence of a distance matrix, which can even consist of a single observation.
A significant disadvantage of the decomposition group of methods is the difficulty of interpreting the resulting space, since it does not contain any describing attributes, so the data often requires additional post-processing in specialized programs that require specialized skills from the researcher.
The next disadvantage is the relative tediousness of the questionnaire for the respondent, since there is a rule regarding the minimum number of objects to be compared, the respondent has to compare a fairly significant number of objects in pairs.
Another drawback is that it is impossible to exclude from the analysis any category or social group whose total space is required to be obtained. Because even if one object is missing, the data will receive a strong shift due to the fact that this group of methods displays the relative positions of all objects relative to each other.
And the last drawback suggests that due to the lack of a pre-prepared list of attributes, the data obtained may differ greatly from each other, since the cognitive systems of each respondent do not coincide, and, accordingly, the criteria by which they perceive the objects being studied are also most likely will be different. Therefore, the data array must be homogeneous, that is, include respondents from approximately the same segment, which will allow us to accept the hypothesis of the similarity of their perceptions.
Having considered the compositional and decompositional group of methods, the question arises: how to make the right choice between them? In what situations should each group of methods be used? It’s worth noting right away that there is no correct answer to the questions posed, since everything is determined by the specifics of a particular study, but a number of assumptions can be made. Thus, the use of compositional methods is more justified in a situation where it is necessary to determine specific differences between the categories under study and their correspondence to specific specified attributes. Also, the use of this group of methods will be a priority when it is necessary to obtain, first of all, a correspondence to attributes, rather than a difference between categories. Similarly, it can be assumed that the use of decomposition methods will be more relevant when the goal is to find the general degree of difference between categories, rather than their specific comparison with attributes. Naturally, in a situation where the researcher understands that in the area under study it is simply impossible to compile a list of attributes that will reflect the real state of affairs, the use of decomposition methods will be justified. Also, it will be justified if there is the possibility of further contact with experts in the field under study, in order to help in interpreting the data obtained.
Next, let us consider in more detail the next step of the researcher after defining the conceptual approach, namely the specific choice of the statistical method through which the perception map will be built. Within the framework of the compositional approach, he can use discriminant analysis, factor analysis or correspondence analysis, and within the framework of the decompositional approach, multidimensional scaling. We note that in this work we will not go into detail into the technical description of the methods, but will try to reveal their strengths and weaknesses when constructing perception maps. Let's start with compositional methods.
Discriminant analysis is a quantitative method in which, based on certain characteristics, an object can be assigned to one or another predetermined group. The main idea is that the studied categories are used as groups (dependent variables), and attributes from a pre-compiled list, according to which respondents rated each category, are used as independent variables. Next, by calculating the discriminant function, coefficients for the independent variables will be obtained, by which it will be possible to judge the importance of each of the attributes. Accordingly, the attributes with the highest coefficients will be interpreted as those that generate significant differences between categories.
In the process of discriminant analysis itself, a sequential construction of a whole series of discriminant functions is carried out, which makes it possible to further obtain the coordinates of the spatial axes from standardized coefficients for independent variables. Having obtained the perception space thanks to the attributes, it is necessary to add the studied categories to it; for this it is necessary to take the standardized average values of the discriminant functions obtained for each of the categories. Obviously, by reflecting these data we will finally form a perception map.
In real practice, discriminant analysis is rarely used, but this does not deprive it of a number of advantages. The main advantage of this method is the statistically correct methodological basis of the method. Thus, studying the differences between categories based on their attribute values is the most adequate way to build perception maps.
Another positive side is the ease of interpretation - the closer the category is to the attribute on the map, the stronger the expression of this attribute in this category (unlike, for example, correspondence analysis, where the same proximity cannot be interpreted in this way). As a disadvantage, it is worth noting that discriminant analysis is very sensitive to the original data. It is advisable to submit only normally distributed data as input, otherwise there is a high probability of getting an unsatisfactory result.
Factor analysis is primarily known as one of the most effective ways to reduce the dimensionality of data, study its structure and latent variables that form the original array. In the process of factor analysis, highly correlated variables are combined into one factor, namely a latent variable, which consists of a linear combination of the original ones. But factor analysis is often used to construct perception maps, since the resulting factors will be independent in comparison with each other, they can be used as axes. Obviously, in order to construct a perceptual map, it is necessary to obtain two or three factors. As the coordinates of each of the axes of the perception map, it is necessary to set the average values of factor loadings for the categories/objects under study. Behind the apparent simplicity of constructing perception maps using factor analysis, one can find several significant drawbacks of this method. Firstly, if we consider in more detail what a factor is, we get that these are some grouped attributes, that is, it is quite difficult to call the resulting space the space of perception of respondents due to its general nature, since it does not give an idea of how specifically respondents prefer these categories. Secondly, to construct a perception map, as a rule, the first two factors are used, but usually they take into account and explain only about half (or even less) of all information, that is, there is a significant loss of information when using the factor analysis method.
Correspondence analysis is currently the most popular method for constructing perceptual maps. To apply the analysis, all you need is a contingency table between categories and the attributes that describe them, and an assessment of the correspondence of an attribute to a category can even be given in categorical form. The basis of correspondence analysis is the chi-square test. The analysis itself is carried out in two stages: first for a set of categories of one variable (rows of the table), then for a set of categories of the second variable (columns of the table). After the stages are completed, the results are combined. Each stage consists, in turn, of three stages. At the first stage, the so-called profiles, or in other words relative frequencies, as well as their masses - marginal proportions - are calculated. The second step is to calculate the distance between each pair of profiles as well as the average profile. The third step involves finding the axes of n-dimensional space that will best describe the resulting cloud of points. Accordingly, in the resulting orthogonal measurements, the objects under study are located according to the acquired degree of proximity. The dimension of the resulting space with which the researcher ultimately works is also low (usually two-dimensional space), because one of the objectives of the method is to reduce the dimension of the original space, and working with three-dimensional space significantly complicates the process of data interpretation. Accordingly, one of the main advantages of the method will be fairly simple requirements for the initial data array, as well as some automation of the map construction process, since all modern statistical packages immediately produce a perception map with attributes and objects already applied to it. The disadvantages of the method may be insufficiently accurate data due to the assumption of using a categorical response scale, since the data obtained with its help will be less accurate than if using scales of a higher level.
Multidimensional scaling, if we consider the general logic of the method, then its task is to effectively (as close as possible to the original data) place the objects under study in a low-dimensional space based on criteria of similarity or difference. As a rule, the initial data for this method is a symmetric matrix. This method is quite simple to implement, but has significant complexity in terms of data interpretation, since descriptive attributes are not included on the map. So, in order to give a correct interpretation, the researcher needs extensive knowledge about the nature of the objects under study or the help of experts.
When constructing perception maps using compositional methods, it is recommended to design the study in such a way that it is possible to construct perception maps using various methods for their further comparison with each other and expanding the range of estimates obtained. From a methodological point of view, it is recommended to first use discriminant analysis, since it makes it possible to best solve the task at hand - to assess the degree of perception of objects at the level of certain attributes.
In this study, it was decided to use compositional group methods, namely factor analysis and correspondence analysis. The decision to use these methods was made due to the lowest requirements for the initial data of the array - it requires a simple contingency table between variables, and also because of the most convenient form to interpret the results.
It is worth noting the particular importance of the quality of the compiled list of attributes/constructs, on the data of which compositional data analysis methods are subsequently based: in our case, factor analysis and correspondence analysis. At the moment, we have little understanding of the existing constructs in the personal system of perception of university specialties of applicants and graduates of the Sociology educational program, so by independently compiling this list of attributes / constructs, we risk having a strong influence on the perception of respondents. That is why it was decided to use such a psychosemantic method as the method of repertory grids by J. Kelly, and specifically its variety - the method of triads.
Next, we will try to determine what kind of psychosemantic methods this is. J. Kelly is the creator of the theory of individual constructs. In his main work, he develops a method for measuring constructs called the repertory grid method. To begin with, we will try to define the basic concepts of his theory.
Thus, the main concept is the concept of “construct”. By construct, J. Kelly understood a special subjective tool that was created and tested through personal experience by the person himself. With the help of such constructs, each person evaluates various events, people’s behavior, the system of social relationships, etc. The construct is always bipolar, that is, it has poles that are opposite in meaning. Therefore, we can immediately note that the construct implies at least an order scale. All similar constructs are combined into systems. People operate with some common constructs, but there is also a separate part of the constructs that differs for everyone. The presence of common constructs among people is characterized by the presence of a social community, and the difference in constructs is associated with their individual way of formation - they cannot be learned from the social world or society in which we find ourselves. For example, one can find constructs that exist exclusively in one individual. Thus, the repertory grid technique is an experimental method aimed at identifying personality constructs. It is worth noting that this method receives information not about each respondent individually, but about specific scaling objects.
Under the method of triads, J. Kelly defines the following type of repertory grids, in which the respondent is asked to select two of the three elements under study, saying how they are similar, and also indicate how they differ from the third. Thus, according to J. Kelly, the constructs that are identified using his proposed methods represent a certain representative sample from the various deep constructs of each respondent; this sample turns out to be more relevant for the entire study as a whole.
32. Methods for studying perception
Phenomenological method. One of the old but relevant methods. The sensory image is considered as an immediate given - a phenomenon.
Method of introspection. This is an introspection of the content of the image of consciousness with an emphasis on their dynamics. Clarity, sharpness, detail, and fading of images are analyzed. Relationship with other relevant objects under different stimulation and observation conditions.
Experimental method. Involves formulating a hypothesis, drawing up an experimental plan, defining and controlling dependent and independent categories, collecting experimental data, testing the hypothesis using statistical procedures.
The following approaches are used in perception experiments:
Tachytoscopy. Strictly dosed and limited exposure time. Control over the speed of detection, recognition and identification of a stimulus.
Chronometry. Measuring reaction time, which is an indicator of perceptual processes. There are motor, verbal, physiological reactions.
Measuring method. Relative or absolute assessment of the stimulation parameter.
Analysis of motor components of perceptual activity. Movements of the perceived organs are recorded, carrying operational information about the process of perception.
Manipulating feedforward and feedback loops in a perceptual system. Using special devices: pseudoscope, pseudophone, vibrators, mirrors. With the help of empirical operations or injections, systematic distortions are introduced into the natural relationships between object and observer.
Genetic method. Identification of stages of development of perceptual abilities. Includes methods of ontogenetic and formative research of perception.
Event analysis. It does not place restrictions on the exposure time, as well as on the mobility of the observer in the process of perception.
Clinical method. Study of perception caused by somatic or mental disorders. The level and functions of sensory motor systems and centers of perceptual mechanisms are assessed.
A method for modeling the work of perceptual pr-ss. A strictly accurate description of individual perceptual phenomena.
24. Monistic and multiple memory models
Wiener divided memory into current and permanent.
RAM
Broadbent proposed a processing model in which perceptual information arrives in parallel to sensory centers that correspond to different signal modalities, where it is stored for a very short time, and then transferred to the next block, where it is processed into verbal form, this block corresponds to short-term memory.
They proposed the idea of primary and secondary memory; information from primary memory is lost because it doesn't fade. They are displaced by newly received information (interference).
Multiple memory model, Shifrin
In this model, information is not simply pumped from one block to another, but copied by translating it into other codes.
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Badeley and Hinch developed a model of working memory based on the idea that storage is maintained in an active state.
Working memory is understood as a system for storing and processing information, which is not modally specific, but multimodal.
The system consists of 3 components:
The central executive component and 2 “enemy systems”. One of which specializes in processing verbal material (articulatory).
According to the model, a certain amount of information is automatically maintained in the articulatory loop.
This amount depends on the time required for vocalization of the material (1-2 seconds), so memory capacity can be expressed either through the number of stimuli or through the total duration of the manifestation.
S – memory capacity
R – reading speed
Ck – coefficients
Suppression of articulation entails a decrease in the capacity of RAM.
Shanin D.A. - the idea of an operational image - an analogue of the operative memory of the visual modality, it emphasizes the characteristics of an object that are essential when performing a specific activity.
5. General properties of sensations
Quality is the main feature of this sensation, distinguishes it from other types and varies within this type of sensation. The qualitative diversity of sensations reflects the diversity of forms of movement of matter.
Intensity is a quantitative characteristic of sensations and is determined by the strength of the current stimulus and the functional state of the receptor.
Duration of sensation. This is its temporary characteristic, determined by the functional state of the sensory organ but mainly by the action of the stimulus. When exposed to a stimulus, sensation occurs after a latent period of sensation. The latent period for different types of sensations is different.
Just as irritation does not arise, but also does not immediately disappear after the cessation of exposure to the stimulus (visual sensation - a trace remains in the form of a consistent image).
There are positive and negative positive images: positive ones remain unchanged after irritation (in cinema we do not notice periods of frame changes, because they are filled with traces of successive images). Negative: when sensing color, sequential images turn into an additional color and a negative sequential image appears, this is explained by a weakening of the sensitivity of the retina.
Analysis carried out by spatial receptors gives us information about the localization of the stimulus in space.
Forms of objective perception. The variety of receptor apparatuses and influences to which these receptors are sensitive determines the existence of various sensations as primary forms of mental reflection. Receptors can be classified according to the nature of their interaction with the stimulus: distant (auditory, visual, olfactory) and contact (temperature, ...
Activity shapes mental processes. Any activity is a combination of internal and external behavioral actions and operations. We will consider each type of mental activity separately. 2. Mental processes as a form of activity Mental processes are the general name for sensations, perceptions, adaptations, attention, memory, thinking, imagination, speech. They all participate in...
Longevity. Thus, the active longevity of an elderly person is facilitated by his development as a socially active personality and as a subject of creative activity. DIFFERENTIAL PSYCHOPHISIOLOGY Differential psychophysiology is a direction in psychology that studies individual psychophysiological differences between people. The term was introduced by V.D. Nebylitsyn (1963). In D. p. two are used...
The ambiguities and ambiguities of the concept are used in this unique definition: “Intelligence is what is measured by intelligence tests.” For example, the American psychologist L. Thurstone, using statistical methods, studied various aspects of general intelligence, which he called primary mental potencies. He identified seven such potencies: 1) counting ability - the ability to count, ...
Source: Chernobay A.D., Fedotova Yu.Yu. (comp.). Methods for diagnosing the properties of perception, attention and memory. Practical instructions for the course "Psychology and Pedagogy" for students of maritime and psychological specialties. - Vladivostok: Morsk. state University named after Admiral G.I. Nevelskoy, 2005. - 53 p.
Age: teenagers, adults.
1. Methodology for diagnosing the volume of perception.
Purpose of the technique: analysis (diagnosis) of the volume of visual perception depending on the degree of meaningfulness of the presented material.
The objects are sets of meaningless combinations of letters (8 letters per set) and meaningful phrases (three words in each phrase). There are a total of 40 presentations in the experiment, 20 for each type of object; letters are presented first, then phrases. The subject's task is to reproduce in writing everything that was presented to him.
Lesson protocol
Subject_________________________________ Date____
Experimenter______________________________ Experiment time____
The experimenter presents the stimulus object for 1 s, after which the subject reproduces what he saw in writing. The subject's answers are recorded in the protocol.
| 1 |
ROPMYULD |
6 |
EVOOERAPV |
| 2 |
LAEPGZIA |
7 |
OTASYAMTL |
| 3 |
LCHUBVUIT |
8 |
DUYAIDRNM |
| 4 |
YVBSBLOM |
9 |
HOVASTRO |
| 5 |
FUCKNOB |
10 |
RVEZHALIM |
|
AROPCDAT |
16 |
TZUBKOPA |
|
| 12 |
TsUPMSTVO |
17 |
BIBPLPYI |
| 13 |
BOADIKRS |
18 |
BMBBSSMPR |
| 14 |
DBAVEZJN |
19 |
PAOAOMPE |
| 15 |
ETSHAVTZOL |
20 |
ORASHTSUZZH |
|
I'm going home |
Let's go for a walk |
||
|
Pass me the tea |
Tired toys sleep |
||
| 3 |
The sun is already high |
13 |
The old lady sat down to rest |
| 4 |
The sea is cold today |
14 |
Today it's very cold |
| 5 |
Call me please |
15 |
A bird makes a nest |
|
It's time to learn your lessons |
16 |
I'm tired of everything |
|
| 7 |
The dog pressed its paw |
17 |
Give me the moon |
|
Time to go to bed |
18 |
Boy draws a rocket |
|
| 9 |
Very interesting book |
19 |
Have you signed up to volunteer? |
|
I don't want to study |
The girl has a lot of fun |
Processing and analysis of results.
- Determine the average number of correctly reproduced letters for both sets of test objects (M 1 and M 2).
- Analyze the nature of the errors made by the subject (for example, mixing letters that are similar in style or sound, etc.).
- Compare the magnitude of the volume of perception when presenting meaningful and meaningless material.
According to classical studies, the volume of perception lies in the range of 4-6 units. When homogeneous objects are presented, the volume of perception is 8 - 9 units. When letter stimuli are presented, the volume of perception is somewhat lower and amounts to 6–7 units. However, if the letters form words, then two short unrelated words and (or) one long word of 10 - 12 letters, or 4 words forming a phrase, can be simultaneously perceived. Thus, in a meaningful text, syllables and words act as operational units of perception.
2. Recognition of figures.
Purpose of the technique: diagnostics (research) of the processes of perception and recognition.
Progress of the study: the experimenter presents the subject with a table depicting 9 figures and asks him to carefully examine and remember these figures for 10 seconds. After which the subject is shown a second table, with a large number of figures. The subject must find among them the figures of the first table.
First instruction: “Now I will show you images of figures. You have 10 seconds to try to remember as many figures as possible” (Fig. 1).
Second instruction: “In the next picture (Fig. 2), among the drawn figures, you must choose those that you saw in the first case.”
Processing of results: the experimenter notes and counts the number of correctly and incorrectly recognized figures. The level of recognition (E) is calculated using the formula:
where “M” is the number of correctly recognized figures,
“N” is the number of incorrectly recognized figures.
The most optimal level of recognition is equal to one, therefore, the closer the test subject’s results are to one, the better his processes of recognizing visual material function. In a similar way, you can study the processes of recognition of other material: alphabetic, digital, verbal.
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Perception as a subject-oriented process (SOP) or an object-oriented process (OOP). Various theories treat perception as OOP or SOP. There is a third class of theories: the interaction of subject and object, which are characterized by the fact that: thinking and perception are independent processes; denial of participation in the knowledge of past experience; Process modeling is not allowed. Differences between OOP and SOP:
Object-oriented theories of perception:
Structuralist theory of perception. Sensation as a unit of perceptual image. The hypothesis of the summation of sensations. Analytical introspection is a method designed to measure sensations in natural conditions. Principle of Constancy: When the same stimulus energies fall on the same part of the sensory organ, they can be detected by AI and converted into the same pure sensations. The world consists of: Sensations that arise when a separate receptor is irritated; Memory images that represent traces of experienced sensations.
Gestalt theory of perception. Emphasis on the innate nature of perceptual processes. Based on the whole, not on units - example melody, triangle outline. The most important thing is not the elements, but the process that produces them. Physiological Gestalt theory - the concentration of chemicals at the ends of excitation.
Gibson(ecological theory of perception). Perception is what an individual achieves. It represents the process of direct contact with the outside world, the process of experiencing, impressions of objects. This is the psychological act of living observation. The source of opportunity extraction is the environment. Visual information is extracted from the light flux. Objects are illuminated - every point of the living space is provided with a luminous flux. We perceive not light, but the surfaces it contains. Surfaces have a texture that changes naturally. Texture gradient is a natural, invariant change in surface texture. Gradients are sources of visual information.
Subject-oriented theories of perception:
Helmholtz. Perception is an act of mental activity. Three types of images: 1) primary image - has a sensitive nature, generated by physiological elements; completely cleared of experience. 2) image-representation - it contains human knowledge that develops in the experience of interaction with the outside world (for example, an idea of the shape of things, their spatial localization, etc. 3) perceptual image - synthesis of (1) AND (2) through the process unconscious inference. Perception is the expression of knowledge about the world in sensory form.
Bruner. Perception– the process of categorization based on past experience. Every category has perceptual readiness. Ready to use – installation. Categorization is the process of assigning individual perceived objects to a general class (signs of assignment - categories).
1) Primary (pre-categorical) - the characteristics of an object and its characteristics are highlighted. 2) Search for features - if the features highlighted in (1) correspond to some category, then categorization occurs instantly; if the signs are unclear, then a search for additional signs is carried out.
3) Confirmatory check - search for signs that confirm assignment to a category.
4) Final confirmation - completion of the categorization process, the image has a final perceptual meaning
Neisser. Basic provisions: 1) Any cognitive activity must be considered in the context of natural purposeful activity. 2) Perception must be studied in the real conditions in which a person lives. 3) Perception must be considered as a continuously ongoing learning process.
Perception is the constructive process of anticipating some information, making it possible for a person to accept this information when it becomes available. To make information accessible, the subject must actively explore the optic flow. The result of studying the environment - the selected information - modifies the original scheme, this is the perceptual cycle. ®Object (available information)® modifies® scheme ®directs® research® Concept of pepper. cycle explains how you can perceive the meaning of backgammon with form and content.
11. Attention: concept, types, properties. Development of attention.
Attention is not an independent cognitive process, since it in itself does not reflect anything and does not exist as a separate mental phenomenon. At the same time, attention is one of the most important components of human cognitive activity, since it, arising on the basis of cognitive processes, organizes and regulates their functioning. Since cognitive activity is carried out consciously, attention performs one of the functions of consciousness.
Attention- this is a special state of consciousness, thanks to which the subject directs and focuses cognitive processes for a more complete and clear reflection of reality. Attention is associated with all sensory and intellectual processes. This connection is most noticeable in sensations and perceptions.
Characteristics of attention:
Sustainability– the duration of attracting attention to the same object or to the same task.
Concentration– increase in signal intensity when the field of perception is limited. Concentration offers not only long-term retention of attention on an object, but also distraction from all other influences that are not important to the subject at the moment.
Focus manifests itself as a result of concentration of consciousness on an object in order to obtain the most complete information about it.
Distribution of attention– the subjectively experienced ability of a person to hold a certain number of heterogeneous objects in the center of attention at the same time.
Switchability- this is the speed of transition from one type of activity to another (absent-mindedness - poor switchability).
Objectivity of attention is associated with the ability to identify certain complexes of signals in accordance with the task at hand, personal significance, relevance of signals, etc.
Attention span characterized by the number of objects to which the subject can direct and focus attention in a split second. The amount of attention is determined using special tachistoscope devices. In an instant, a person can pay attention to only a few objects (from 4 to 6).
Types of attention:
The manifestation of attention is associated with both sensory and intellectual processes, as well as with practical actions and with the goals and objectives of the activity. In this regard, the following types of attention are highlighted: sensory, intellectual, motor, intentional and unintentional attention.
Sensory attention occurs when objects act on the senses. It provides a clear reflection of objects and their properties in the sensations and perceptions of a person. Thanks to sensory attention, the images of objects that appear in the mind are clear and distinct. Sensory attention can be visual, auditory, olfactory etc. Basically, a person exhibits visual and auditory attention. Visual attention is the best studied in psychology because it is easy to detect and record.
Motor attention aimed at movements and actions performed by a person. It makes it possible to more clearly and clearly understand the techniques and methods used in practical activities. Motor attention regulates and controls movements and actions aimed at an object, especially in cases where they must be particularly clear and precise. Intelligent attention aimed at more efficient functioning of such cognitive processes as: memory, imagination and thinking. Thanks to this attention, a person remembers and reproduces information better, creates clearer images of the imagination, and thinks clearly and productively. Since this attention is internal in nature and is little accessible for research, it is the least studied in psychology.
Intentional (voluntary) attention arises when the subject has a goal or task to be attentive to some external object or to an internal mental action. It is mainly aimed at regulating external sensory and motor actions and internal cognitive processes. Intentional attention can become voluntary when the subject needs to show volitional effort in order to direct and focus attention on an object that needs to be cognized or with which to act.
If the direction and concentration of attention are associated with a conscious goal, we are talking about voluntary attention. N. F. Dobrynin identified another type of attention - post-voluntary attention (this is attention that naturally accompanies the activity of the individual; it arises if the individual is absorbed in the activity; it is connected with the existing system of associations). This may occur when the goal of paying attention remains, but volitional efforts disappear. Such attention begins to appear when activities that require volitional efforts become exciting and are carried out without much difficulty.
If direction and concentration are involuntary, we are talking about involuntary attention. According to K.K. Platonov, one of the forms of involuntary attention is an attitude (a state of readiness or predisposition of an individual to act in a certain way). Unintentional (involuntary) attention arises by itself without any purpose on the part of the person. It is caused by properties and qualities of objects and phenomena of the external world that are significant for a person. One of these properties is the novelty of the object. Involuntary attention is also attracted by all strong stimuli: bright light, loud sound, strong smell, etc. Sometimes not very noticeable stimuli can attract attention if they correspond to the needs, interests and attitudes of the individual.