Scientific knowledge is the process of obtaining scientific knowledge, i.e. developing knowledge system.

It includes two main levels of knowledge - empirical and theoretical, which are closely interrelated, although each of them has its own specific features. The boundary between these levels is conditional and fluid. Empirical research, revealing new data through observations and experiments, stimulates theoretical knowledge and poses new, more complex tasks. On the other hand, theoretical knowledge, developing and concretizing its own new content on the basis of empirics, opens up new, broader horizons for empirical knowledge, orients and directs it in the search for new facts, contributes to the improvement of its methods and means, etc. At certain points in the development of science, the empirical turns into the theoretical and vice versa. In the process of scientific knowledge, there is not only the unity of empiricism and theory, but also the relationship and interaction of the latter with practice.

At the empirical level, living contemplation (sensory cognition) predominates, which is carried out within the framework of observation, experiment and other empirical research methods. The rational element and its forms (judgments, inferences, development of abstract concepts and categories) are present, but have a subordinate meaning. The object under study is reflected primarily from its external connections and manifestations, accessible to living contemplation and expressing internal relationships. Collection of facts, their primary generalization, description of observed and experimental data, their systematization, classification and other fact-recording activities are characteristic features of empirical knowledge.

Empirical, experimental research is aimed directly at its object. Here such techniques and means are used as description, comparison, measurement, observation, experiment, analysis, induction.

The main element of empirical knowledge is fact (from the Latin factum - done, accomplished). The concept of fact has several meanings, which make up the concept of “scientific fact”.

Scientific fact– this is knowledge about any event, phenomenon, the reliability of which has been proven through observations and experiments and recorded using linguistic means and symbols.

A fact becomes scientific when it is an element of the logical structure of a specific system of scientific knowledge and is included in this system. “We must admit that not a single experimental fact can be formulated apart from some system of concepts,” wrote N. Bohr. A. Einstein considered the belief that facts by themselves, without free theoretical construction, can and should lead to scientific knowledge to be a prejudice. A collection of empirical facts, no matter how extensive it may be, without the “activity of the mind” cannot lead to the establishment of any laws and equations.

In modern scientific methodology, two extreme trends stand out: factualism and theoreticism . Factualism emphasizes the independence and autonomy of facts in relation to various theories. Theoreticism asserts that facts are completely dependent on theory, and when theories change, the entire factual basis of science changes. The solution to the problem of the relationship between empirical and theoretical knowledge is considered correct, in which a scientific fact, having a theoretical load, is relatively independent of theory, since it is fundamentally determined by material reality. In this case, a paradoxical situation occurs: a scientific fact is both independent of theory and at the same time dependent on it. This paradox is resolved as follows.

Establishing a fact involves knowledge that has been tested independently of theory, and facts provide an incentive for the formation of new theoretical knowledge. The latter, if they are reliable, can again participate in the formation of new facts, etc.

K. Popper believes that if facts do not have “something theoretical built into them,” then such “facts” are neither the basis nor a guarantee of obtaining scientific knowledge. He also noted that man-made theories can come into conflict with real facts, and then in the search for truth one has to adapt the theories to the facts or abandon these theories. It is the theorist who shows the way to the experimenter, and theory dominates the experimental work from its original plan to its finishing touches in the laboratory.

In scientific knowledge, facts play a dual role. Firstly, the totality of facts forms the empirical basis for putting forward hypotheses and constructing theories, and, secondly, facts are crucial for confirming theories (if they correspond to the totality of facts) or refuting them (if there is no correspondence). The discrepancy between individual or several facts and a theory does not mean that the latter should be immediately rejected. Only if all attempts to eliminate the contradiction between theory and facts are unsuccessful, do they come to the conclusion that the theory is false and abandon it.

Speaking about the most important role of facts in the development of science, V.I. Vernadsky wrote: “Scientific facts constitute the main content of scientific knowledge and scientific work. They, if correctly established, are indisputable and generally binding. Along with them, systems of certain scientific facts can be distinguished, the main form of which is empirical generalizations. This is the main fund of science, scientific facts, their classifications and empirical generalizations, which in its reliability cannot raise doubts and sharply distinguishes science from philosophy and religion. Neither philosophy nor religion creates such facts and generalizations.” V.I. Vernadsky also emphasized that it is necessary to strive to cover, as far as possible, all the facts, without exception, related to the subject of the study. Only if they are taken in an integral system, in their interconnection, will they become truly scientific facts.

Thus, empirical experience is always, especially in modern science, planned and constructed by theory, and facts are always theoretically justified in one way or another. Therefore, the starting point of any science is not the facts themselves, but theoretical schemes for explaining reality, consisting of definitions, statements, principles, concepts, etc.

The theoretical level of cognition is characterized by the predominance of the rational element - concepts, theories, laws and other forms of thinking and “mental operations”. Sensory cognition is not eliminated here, but becomes a secondary aspect of the cognitive process.

Theoretical knowledge reflects phenomena and processes from their universal internal connections and patterns, comprehended through rational processing of empirical knowledge data. This processing is carried out with the help of concepts, inferences, laws, categories, principles, etc. On the basis of empirical data, the essence of the objects under study, the laws of their existence, which constitute the main content of theories, are comprehended here.

The most important task of theoretical knowledge in any field of science is the achievement of objective truth in all its specificity and completeness of content.

To solve problems of theoretical knowledge, such techniques and means as abstraction, idealization, synthesis, deduction, ascent from the abstract to the concrete, etc. are used. The presence of idealization in theoretical knowledge is an indicator of the development of theoretical knowledge as a set of certain ideal models.

A characteristic feature of theoretical knowledge is its focus on oneself, intrascientific reflection, i.e. study of the process of cognition itself, its forms, techniques, methods, conceptual apparatus, etc.

On the basis of theoretical explanation and established laws, prediction and scientific foresight of the future is carried out. At the theoretical stage of cognition, rational cognition is predominant, which is most fully and adequately expressed in thinking.

In the field of medicine, the development of scientific knowledge has led to the emergence of a qualitatively new level and method of medical thinking - theoretical medicine. This is a new, modern stage in the development of the medical way of knowing objective reality.

Theoretical medicine develops ways of scientific research, rules, techniques, and norms of knowledge in the field of medicine.

Scientism (from Latin scientia - science) is a philosophical direction in which science is considered as the highest stage of development of the human mind. Scientism claims that science can solve all social problems.

Stages of cognition. The forms of construction and development of theoretical knowledge are its structural components, which include problem, hypothesis, theory, law.

As a form of theoretical knowledge, problem contains something that has not yet been known by man, but that needs to be known. The problem arises as a contradiction between existing theoretical knowledge and experience. A problem is not a frozen form of knowledge, but a process that includes two main points (stages of cognition) - its formulation and solution. Correct derivation of problematic knowledge from previous facts and generalizations, the ability to correctly pose a problem is a necessary prerequisite for its successful solution. “The formulation of a problem is often more significant than its solution, which can only be a matter of mathematical or experimental art. Raising new questions, developing new possibilities, considering old problems from a new angle require creative imagination and reflect real success in science,” wrote A. Einstein.

According to K. Popper, problems arise in three cases: 1) as a consequence of a contradiction in a separate theory, 2) when two different theories collide, 3) as a result of a collision between theory and observations.

Thus, a scientific problem arises when there is a contradictory situation that requires appropriate resolution.

The determining influence on the way of posing and solving a problem is the nature of thinking of the era in which the problem is formulated, and the level of knowledge about those objects that the problem concerns. Each historical era has its own characteristic forms of problem situations, its own theoretical and practical problems.

After defining the problem in the course of theoretical knowledge, hypotheses are formulated. As a form of theoretical knowledge, hypothesis contains an assumption formulated on the basis of a number of facts, the true meaning of which is uncertain and requires proof. In the formation of a hypothesis, a significant role is played by the ideals of knowledge accepted by the researcher, the picture of the world, his value and other attitudes that purposefully guide his search. In the process of scientific knowledge, general, specific and working hypotheses are used, depending on the complexity of the problem and the goals of the research.

Hypothetical knowledge is probabilistic, not reliable, and requires verification and justification. In the course of proving the put forward hypotheses, some of them become a true theory, others are modified, clarified and specified, and others are discarded and turn into delusions if the test gives a negative result. Proposing a new hypothesis, as a rule, is based on the results of testing the old one, even if these results were negative. For example, the periodic law of chemical elements of D.I. Mendeleev, the evolutionary theory of Charles Darwin, the theory of the heliocentric structure of the Universe of N. Copernicus, etc. passed the stage of hypothesis. A. Whitehead emphasized that systematic thinking cannot progress without using some general working hypotheses with special area of ​​application. Such hypotheses guide observations, help evaluate the meaning of facts of various types, and prescribe a particular method. Therefore, Whitehead believed, even an inadequate working hypothesis, supported by at least some facts, is still better than nothing. It organizes the cognitive process, its entire procedure.

A hypothesis is fruitful if it can lead to new knowledge and new methods of cognition, to an explanation of a wide range of phenomena. Therefore, a hypothesis is both a form of theoretical knowledge, characterized by problematicity and unreliability, and a method for the development of scientific knowledge.

The decisive test of the truth of a hypothesis is ultimately practice in all its forms, but the logical (theoretical) criterion of truth also plays a certain (auxiliary) role in proving or refuting hypothetical knowledge. A tested and proven hypothesis becomes a reliable truth and becomes a scientific theory.

Theory– this is the most complex and developed form of scientific knowledge, providing a holistic reflection of the natural and essential connections of a certain area of ​​reality. Examples of such theories are the evolutionary theory of Charles Darwin, the theory of relativity of A. Einstein, the theory of self-organizing integral systems (synergetics), the theory of homeostasis, etc. Any theory is an integral developing system of true knowledge, which has a complex structure and performs a number of functions.

For medical problems, a certain specificity of the relationship between the empirical and theoretical levels of their solution is highlighted: the more difficult the medical problem is for scientific and theoretical understanding and resolution, the greater the role and importance in this played by philosophical guidelines for its justification, integration and interpretation. A comprehensive study of the human body in normal and pathological conditions is always closely interconnected with philosophical theories and concepts. This was especially evident in the 19th and 20th centuries, when medical science was significantly influenced by both dialectical-materialist theory and positivism, existentialism, phenomenology, philosophical anthropology and other philosophical movements.

The truth of any theory is verified by practice. Practice is the totality of human sensory-objective activity in its historical development, in the entire volume of its content. The relationship between theory and practice does not remain given once and for all; they change with the historical development of society. At the same time, not only the nature of theory (and knowledge in general) changes, but also the main features of social practice change qualitatively, and new forms appear. Historical experience shows that, growing from the sensory-objective activity of people, from their active changes in natural and social reality, theory returns to practice and is objectified in the forms of culture. Theory, as a system of reliable knowledge (of varying levels of generality) guides the course of practice, and its provisions (laws, principles, etc.) act as spiritual regulators of practical activity. Only such a theory, which creatively reflects real life, serves as a real guide to action, to transforming the world in accordance with its objective laws, turns into action, into social practice and is verified by it.

Theoretical research and medical practice always, to a greater or lesser extent, coarse and distort reality, medical reality. Thus, medical knowledge follows from analysis to synthesis, from empiricism to theory, rising to a qualitatively new level of knowledge of medical reality.

The modern level of scientific knowledge is based on certain models for posing and solving scientific problems - paradigms. American historian and philosopher Thomas Samuel Kuhn considered the paradigm to be the foundation of science. He believed that scientists see the world through the prism of the accepted paradigm. According to T. Kuhn, there are no and cannot be facts independent of the scientific paradigm. He believed that the attempt to gain knowledge needs guidelines; it cannot start from nothing, i.e. it needs some theory, a point of view that allows the researcher to separate the essential from the inessential and tells him in what areas his research will be fruitful. T. Kuhn defends not just the use of theoretical assumptions, but the choice of one particular set of ideas that excludes everything else, a manic adherence to a single point of view. He defends this choice primarily because this choice, as it seems to him, takes place in real science.

In scientific activity, a paradigm (from the Greek paradeigma - example, sample) is the initial conceptual scheme, a model for posing problems and their solutions, research methods that prevailed during a certain historical period in the scientific community.

Scientific revolutions

Stages in the development of scientific knowledge associated with the restructuring of research strategies set by the foundations of science are called scientific revolutions. “The foundations of science ensure the growth of knowledge as long as the general features of the systemic organization of the objects being studied are taken into account in the picture of the world, and the methods of mastering these objects correspond to the established ideals and norms of research. But as science develops, it may encounter fundamentally new types of objects that require a different vision of reality compared to the one assumed by the existing picture of the world. New objects may also require changes in the scheme of the method of cognitive activity, represented by a system of ideals and norms of research. In this situation, the growth of scientific knowledge presupposes a restructuring of the foundations of science.”

A scientific revolution can occur in two forms:

1) as a revolution associated with the transformation of a special picture of the world without significant changes in the ideals and norms of research;

2) as a revolution, during which, along with the picture of the world, the ideals and norms of science radically change.

The restructuring of the foundations of science as a result of its internal development usually begins with the accumulation of facts that cannot be explained within the framework of the existing picture of the world. These facts reflect new characteristics of objects and testify to the laws of the existence of objects in reality that are still unknown to science. This requires science to use new research methods and theoretical approaches to explain the peculiarities of the existence of objects in the world.

Scientific revolutions are possible not only as a result of the development of special sciences, the objects of research of which are increasingly new types of objects and phenomena, but also as a result of the interaction of special sciences, the transfer of established patterns from one narrow field of research to another. Thus, there is a transfer of a special scientific picture of the world from one scientific field to another.

For example, in the 17th century. R. Boyle, at the stage of the formation of chemistry as an independent science, used the principles and examples of explaining chemical phenomena from mechanics (ideas about the atomic-corpuscular structure of matter). Lamarck, in his explanations of the laws of evolution of the natural world, used ideas about the laws of movement from the mechanistic picture of the world that dominated in the 18th century. The laws of inheritance discovered by G. Mendel combined “methods of two sciences: mathematics - the probabilistic-statistical method (Doppler) and biology - the hybridization method (Unger).”

J. La Mettrie and P. Holbach used the ideas of the mechanistic approach in explaining the nature of man and the life of society. According to Holbach, the main characteristic of man is his desire for self-preservation. At the same time, “a person resists destruction, experiences the force of inertia, gravitates towards himself, is attracted by objects similar to him and is repelled by objects opposite to him... Everything that he does and what happens in him is a consequence of the force of inertia, gravitation towards himself, force attraction and repulsion, the desire for self-preservation, in a word, the energy common to him with all observed beings.”

In all types of scientific knowledge (humanities, natural sciences, etc.) one can trace the relationship between the understanding and explanation of certain facts. “In particular, understanding is built into the very acts of natural scientific observation and formation of facts. When a modern astronomer observes luminous points in the firmament, he understands that these are stars, huge plasma bodies similar to the Sun, while the astronomer of antiquity could understand the same phenomenon differently, for example, as heavenly light that shines through slits in the firmament.”

Global scientific revolutions are periods of the development of science when all components of its foundations are transformed. As a result of global scientific revolutions, there is a change in scientific pictures of the world, which is accompanied by a radical change in the normative structures of research, as well as the philosophical foundations of science.

In the history of science, it is customary to distinguish four global scientific revolutions:

1. Natural science revolution of the 17th century..

2. Second scientific revolution (late 18th - first half of the 19th centuries). As a result of this revolution, disciplinary science emerges.

3. Third scientific revolution (late 19th – mid 20th centuries). The result of the revolution was the emergence of non-classical science.

4. The fourth scientific revolution (last third of the 20th century). As a result of the revolution, post-non-classical science appears.

Ethical problems of science.

Scientific ethics (ethics of science) is “the area of ​​philosophical and intrascientific reflection on the moral aspects of scientific activity, including the relationship of science and the scientific community with society as a whole” (Yu.M. Khrustalev, G.I. Tsaregorodtsev).

Ethics of science as an independent discipline studies the moral foundations of scientific activity, the set of value principles accepted in the scientific community and concentrates the social and humanistic aspects of science.

The ethical component of science, according to a number of philosophers, is an emotionally charged set of rules, regulations and customs, beliefs, values ​​and predispositions that are considered mandatory for a scientist.

The ethical problems of modern science have some features that are determined by the entire complex of sociocultural conditions in society.

Scientific research necessarily involves, to a greater or lesser extent, the use of technical means. The modern world is a very technologized space filled with technical devices of varying complexity. The manifestation of the creative abilities of modern man occurs taking into account the laws of the surrounding technological environment. The enormous opportunities that open up in scientific research using sophisticated technical means lead to the emergence of contradictions between these opportunities and the ethical standards existing in society and a particular scientific community.

The specificity of ethical problems of modern science is also determined by the fact that the object of many studies is the person himself. This in turn creates a certain threat to his health and existence. Nuclear physicists were the first to encounter such problems. In recent decades, research in the fields of molecular biology, genetics, psychology, and medicine has become a threat to human life and health. The variety of ethical problems in the field of science is most often divided in accordance with the existing branches of modern science - ethical problems of physics, chemistry, technology, medicine and others. Ethical problems of medicine, due to the diversity of its constituent scientific disciplines, are divided into ethical problems related to human life (ethical problems of reproductive technologies, abortion, status of the human embryo), ethical problems of transplantology, ethical problems related to human death (the problem of euthanasia), ethical problems of gene technologies (problems of gene therapy, cloning, etc.), ethical problems of conducting experiments on humans and animals, and others.

One of the ethical problems of science is the problem of moral responsibility for the application of new knowledge. Society's awareness of this problem came during the period when the thermonuclear reaction, discovered by physicists, began to be used. It led, on the one hand, to the creation of the atomic bomb, and on the other hand, to attempts to use this property of matter for the benefit of humanity (nuclear power plants, etc.). Discoveries in the field of bacteriology and microbiology led, on the one hand, to the creation of vaccines against various diseases, and on the other hand, to the creation of bacteriological weapons.

Achievements of scientific and technological progress in the field of biology and medicine are difficult to predict in terms of their consequences for humans. In this regard, in many cases there is a danger of destruction of the biogenetic basis of a person, a threat to his corporeality, the fundamental patterns of functioning of which have developed during a long evolution.

Particular ethical problems have arisen in connection with the development of commercial relations in the field of science. They become especially acute in the field of medicine and healthcare. The relationship of medical workers with patients, their relatives and their colleagues, the use of various methods of diagnosis, treatment and prevention of various diseases, including the use of various medications, has traditionally been regulated by the norms of professional medical ethics, focused on the benefit of the patient and not causing him harm. In the conditions of market relations of modern medicine and healthcare, the issue of the welfare of the medical worker and the medical institution becomes relevant, which leads to the emergence of many ethical contradictions in the activities of medical workers.

Appendix 1.

PROBLEMS OF COGNITION IN MEDICINE

1. Medicine as a form of scientific knowledge.

2. The unity of empirical and theoretical knowledge in medicine.

3. The problem of the relationship between objective and subjective in medical knowledge.

4. Diagnostics as a process of medical knowledge.

5. The role of medical technology in modern scientific knowledge and medical practice.

6. Ethical problems of medical science.

7. Ethical problems of biomedical experiments on animals and humans.

Is empirical knowledge a type of sensory knowledge?

Our knowledge is not only scientific, but also carried out at the logical level. Empirical knowledge includes elements of logical thinking. The forms of empirical knowledge are facts and empirical generalizations. Therefore, no, empirical knowledge is not a type of sensory knowledge, since logic is included.

1. Forms and results of empirical knowledge.

Empirical knowledge has forms. Form is the type of result and the process itself. 1st form – facts, 2nd form – empirical generalizations. A fact is a scientific representation of phenomena, a kind of generalization of many similar experiments and observations. Empirical generalizations are the next step, at which stable connections and relationships are discovered in the array of e-phenomena. material. The fact is not an isolated observation, but also a generalization. What is the difference between the understanding of fact in positivism and epistemology? The fact has the character of a protocol sentence. For scientific philosophy, there is the content of an objective empirical generalization - this is the result of a logical synthesis, which is similar to the form of a theory. Empirical generalization is on the border, in it all connections between differences are eliminated and there is objective content. Empirical generalization, in contrast to Mach's principle of economy of thinking, has an objective content. Example - generalization of chemistry, 1 - Butlerov's theory of the structure of chemical compounds (the property of an element depends significantly on the neighboring and other elements, one element can exhibit different properties), 2 - periodic law and table.

Empirical generalization performs a number of functions: 1-descriptive, 2-predictive (the periodic law predicted the discovery of new elements).

Generalizations underlie the doctrine of the biosphere. Vernadsky believed that the biosphere evolved in the speed of migration of chemical elements. Biological evolution aims at the emergence of species. An empirical generalization does not contain an answer to the question - why does it have such content? Because the facts are like that. Why are the facts like this? There is no answer. The answer should be sought in more general sciences.

Empirical knowledge is primary scientific knowledge that is obtained through contact with the object being studied. Empiria (lat.) – experience.

They learn from negative experiences (mistakes).

Empirical knowledge is descriptive.

Science, 3 functions: description, explanation and prediction.

Empirical level: there is no explanation, but it can be predicted (if we see that copper expands when heated, then we can predict that other metals too).

Methods of obtaining knowledge: empirical research is carried out through observation, experiment and measurement.

Observation is present not only during real contact with an object, but also in our imagination (sign observation - reading, mathematics).

First, observation precedes cognition, we formulate the problem. We can make a hypothesis. The observation at the end of the study is a test of our theory.

The structure of observation includes: object, observer, observation conditions, devices (tools), basic knowledge.

Scientific observation requires recording of all phenomena (so that the scientist can check).

Observations: direct (the object is accessible) and indirect (the object is not accessible, only its traces, etc., that it left are available).

Approbation (lat.) – approval (it does not come from the word “test”).

Dimension: direct (measurement of length), indirect (time, temperature; temperature is the energy of movement of molecules).

Measurement in science is carried out many times. Since all quantities will be different in measurement. Each specific result is an average value (the error is also considered).

An experiment is an active influence on an object. Task: search (we don’t know what will happen) or testing an existing hypothesis

Empirical knowledge has the logical form of a concept. When we connect two empirical concepts or phenomena, we get a law (the larger the volume, the lower the pressure, etc.).

Empirical knowledge is the first and last scientific knowledge (Comte, Mach, this is the opinion of the positivists). Theoretical knowledge does not contain new knowledge in their opinion.

But a scientist cannot be an empiricist, since he uses language (and language is abstract, it uses concepts that cannot be touched).

A fact is almost the same as a theory (both are one knowledge). The fact needs interpretation. The interpretation of a fact gives meaning to it. A fact always has many interpretations.

The structure of the fact: what we experience (psychological component); what we expressed (linguistic component); the event itself.

Facts, role in science: source and verification. Facts must confirm knowledge. Postpositivism (Poper): a fact cannot confirm, but it can refute a theory.

Locator: any scientific knowledge is an assumption (it cannot be refuted or confirmed). The goal is to replace old assumptions (guesses) with new ones. And we “guess” that the new ones are better than the old ones.

Scientific knowledge is a complex developing system in which, as evolution progresses, new levels of organization arise. They have a reverse impact on previously established levels of knowledge and transform them. In this process, new techniques and methods of theoretical research constantly emerge, and the strategy of scientific research changes.

There are two types of organization of knowledge: empirical and theoretical. Accordingly, two types of cognitive procedures that generate this knowledge can be distinguished.

Turning to the philosophical aspect of this issue, it is necessary to note such philosophers of the New Time as F. Bacon, T. Hobbes and D. Locke. Francis Bacon said that the path leading to knowledge is observation, analysis, comparison and experiment. John Locke believed that we derive all our knowledge from experience and sensations.

The difference between the empirical and theoretical levels of scientific knowledge concerns the means of research, the specifics of methods and the nature of the subject of research.

Let us consider the means of the empirical level of scientific knowledge. Empirical research is based on direct practical interaction between the researcher and the object being studied. It involves making observations and experimental activities. Therefore, the means of empirical research necessarily include instruments, instrumental installations and other means of real observation and experiment.

In theoretical research, there is no direct practical interaction with objects. At this level, an object can only be studied indirectly, in a thought experiment, but not in a real one.

In addition to the means that are associated with the organization of experiments and observations, conceptual means are also used in empirical research. They function as a special language, often called the empirical language of science. It has a complex organization in which the actual empirical terms and the terms of the theoretical language interact.

The meaning of empirical terms is special abstractions that could be called empirical objects. They must be distinguished from objects of reality. Empirical objects are abstractions that actually highlight a certain set of properties and relationships of things. Real objects are represented in empirical cognition in the image of ideal objects that have a strictly fixed and limited set of characteristics. A real object has an infinite number of attributes.

As for theoretical knowledge, other research tools are used in it. There are no means of material, practical interaction with the object being studied. But the language of theoretical research also differs from the language of empirical descriptions. Its basis is theoretical terms, the meaning of which is theoretical ideal objects.

The features of the means and methods of the two levels of scientific knowledge are associated with the specifics of the subject of empirical and theoretical research. At each of these levels, a researcher can deal with the same objective reality, but he studies it in different subject sections, in different aspects, and therefore its vision, its representation in knowledge will be given differently. Empirical research is fundamentally focused on studying phenomena and the relationships between them. At this level of cognition, essential connections are not yet identified in their pure form, but they seem to be highlighted in phenomena, appearing through their concrete shell.

At the level of theoretical knowledge, essential connections are identified in their pure form. The essence of an object is the interaction of a number of laws to which this object is subject. The task of the theory is precisely to divide this complex network of laws into components, then to recreate their interaction step by step and thus reveal the essence of the object.

The empirical and theoretical levels differ in research methods. With the help of empirical research methods, the accumulation, recording, generalization and systematization of experimental data, their statistical and inductive processing are carried out, while with the help of theoretical ones, the laws of science and theories are formed.

Empirical research methods include observation, comparison, measurement and experiment; theoretical methods include analogy, idealization, formalization, etc.

Observation- this is a purposeful systematic perception of an object, delivering primary material for scientific research. Purposefulness is the most important characteristic of observation. By concentrating attention on an object, the observer relies on some knowledge he has about it, without which it is impossible to determine the purpose of the observation. Observation is also characterized by systematicity, which is expressed in the perception of an object many times and under different conditions, systematicity, eliminating gaps in observation, and the activity of the observer, his ability to select the necessary information, determined by the purpose of the study.

Requirements for scientific observations:

clear statement of the purpose of observation;

choosing a methodology and developing a plan;

consistency;

control over the reliability and correctness of observation results;

processing, comprehension and interpretation of the resulting data array;

As a method of scientific knowledge, observation provides initial information about an object necessary for its further research.

Play an important role in cognition comparison And measurement. Comparison is a method of comparing objects in order to identify similarities or differences between them. If objects are compared with an object that acts as a standard, then such a comparison is called measurement.

The most complex and effective method of empirical knowledge is experiment, drawing on other empirical methods. An experiment is a method of studying an object, in which the researcher (experimenter) actively influences the object, creates artificial conditions necessary to identify certain of its properties. An experiment involves the use of certain means: instruments, instruments, experimental installations, is characterized by an active influence on the object, and can be repeated as many times as required to obtain reliable results.

There are two types of experimental problems:

research experiment, which is associated with the search for unknown dependencies between several parameters of an object;

a verification experiment, which is used when it is necessary to confirm or refute certain consequences of a theory.

In an experiment, as a rule, devices are used - artificial or natural material systems, the operating principles of which are well known to us. That. within the framework of our experiment, our knowledge and some theoretical ideas already appear in material form. Without them, experimentation is impossible, at least within the framework of science. Any attempt to separate experiment from the theory of knowledge makes it impossible to understand its nature, to understand the essence.

FORMS OF EMPIRICAL KNOWLEDGE (SUBJECT FORMS, CONCEPTS, JUDGMENTS, LAWS)

Cognition is a specific type of human activity aimed at understanding the world around us and oneself in this world. One of the levels of scientific knowledge is empirical. The empirical level of scientific knowledge is characterized by the direct study of really existing, sensory objects. The special role of empirics in science lies in the fact that only at this level of research we deal with the direct interaction of a person with the natural or social objects being studied.

Living contemplation (sensory cognition) predominates here; the rational element and its forms (judgments, concepts, etc.) are present here, but have a subordinate significance. Therefore, the object under study is reflected primarily from its external connections and manifestations, accessible to living contemplation and expressing internal relationships. At this level, the process of accumulating information about the objects and phenomena under study is carried out by conducting observations, performing various measurements, and delivering experiments. Here, the primary systematization of the obtained factual data is also carried out in the form of tables, diagrams, graphs, etc. In addition, already at the empirical level, the level of scientific knowledge - as a consequence of the generalization of scientific facts - it is possible to formulate some empirical patterns.

The following types of forms of scientific knowledge are distinguished: general logical. These include concepts, judgments, inferences; local-logical. These include scientific ideas, hypotheses, theories, laws.

Concept is a thought that reflects the property and necessary characteristics of an object or phenomenon. Concepts can be: general, individual, specific, abstract, relative, absolute, etc. General concepts are associated with a certain set of objects or phenomena, individual concepts relate only to one, specific - to specific objects or phenomena, abstract - to their individual characteristics, relative concepts are always presented in pairs, and absolute concepts do not contain pairwise relations.

Judgment- is a thought that contains the affirmation or denial of something through a connection of concepts. Judgments can be affirmative and negative, general and particular, conditional and disjunctive, etc.

Inference is a thinking process that connects a sequence of two or more judgments, resulting in a new judgment. Essentially, inference is a conclusion that makes possible the transition from thinking to practical action. There are two types of inferences:

A higher degree of scientific knowledge finds its expression, as noted, in local logical forms. In this case, the process of cognition goes from a scientific idea to a hypothesis, subsequently turning into a law or theory.

Law- these are necessary, essential, stable, recurring relationships between phenomena in nature and society. The law reflects the general connections and relationships inherent in all phenomena of a given kind or class.

The law is objective in nature and exists independently of people’s consciousness. Knowledge of laws is the main task of science and serves as the basis for people’s transformation of nature and society.

There is a movement from ignorance to knowledge. Thus, the first stage of the cognitive process is to determine what we do not know. It is important to clearly and strictly define the problem, separating what we already know from what we do not yet know. The problem(from the Greek problema - task) is a complex and controversial issue that requires resolution.

The second step is the development of a hypothesis (from the Greek hypothesis - assumption). Hypothesis - This is a scientifically based assumption that requires testing.

If a hypothesis is proven by a large number of facts, it becomes a theory (from the Greek theoria - observation, research). Theory is a system of knowledge that describes and explains certain phenomena; such as, for example, evolutionary theory, relativity theory, quantum theory, etc.

When choosing the best theory, the degree of its testability plays an important role. A theory is reliable if it is confirmed by objective facts (including newly discovered ones) and if it is distinguished by clarity, distinctness, and logical rigor.

Scientific facts

It is necessary to distinguish between objective and scientific facts. Objective fact- this is a really existing object, process or event that took place. For example, the death of Mikhail Yuryevich Lermontov (1814-1841) in a duel is a fact. Scientific fact is knowledge that is confirmed and interpreted within the framework of a generally accepted system of knowledge.

Assessments are opposed to facts and reflect the significance of objects or phenomena for a person, his approving or disapproving attitude towards them. Scientific facts usually record the objective world as it is, while assessments reflect a person’s subjective position, his interests, and the level of his moral and aesthetic consciousness.

Most of the difficulties for science arise in the process of transition from hypothesis to theory. There are methods and procedures that allow you to test a hypothesis and prove it or reject it as incorrect.

Method(from the Greek methodos - the path to the goal) is called a rule, technique, way of cognition. In general, a method is a system of rules and regulations that allow one to study an object. F. Bacon called the method “a lamp in the hands of a traveler walking in the dark.”

Methodology is a broader concept and can be defined as:

• a set of methods used in any science;
• general doctrine of method.

Since the criteria of truth in its classical scientific understanding are, on the one hand, sensory experience and practice, and on the other, clarity and logical distinctness, all known methods can be divided into empirical (experimental, practical ways of knowing) and theoretical (logical procedures).

Empirical methods of cognition

basis empirical methods are sensory cognition (sensation, perception, representation) and instrument data. These methods include:

• observation— purposeful perception of phenomena without interfering with them;
• experiment— study of phenomena under controlled and controlled conditions;
• measurement - determination of the ratio of the measured quantity to
• standard (for example, meter);
• comparison— identification of similarities or differences between objects or their characteristics.

There are no pure empirical methods in scientific knowledge, since even simple observation requires preliminary theoretical foundations - choosing an object for observation, formulating a hypothesis, etc.

Theoretical methods of cognition

Actually theoretical methods rely on rational cognition (concept, judgment, inference) and logical inference procedures. These methods include:

• analysis- the process of mental or real division of an object, phenomenon into parts (signs, properties, relationships);
• synthesis - combining the aspects of the subject identified during the analysis into a single whole;
• — combining various objects into groups based on common characteristics (classification of animals, plants, etc.);
• abstraction - abstraction in the process of cognition from some properties of an object for the purpose of in-depth study of one specific aspect of it (the result of abstraction is abstract concepts such as color, curvature, beauty, etc.);
• formalization - display of knowledge in a sign, symbolic form (in mathematical formulas, chemical symbols, etc.);
• analogy - inference about the similarity of objects in a certain respect based on their similarity in a number of other respects;
• modeling— creation and study of a substitute (model) of an object (for example, computer modeling of the human genome);
• idealization— creation of concepts for objects that do not exist in reality, but have a prototype in it (geometric point, ball, ideal gas);
• deduction - movement from the general to the specific;
• induction- movement from the particular (facts) to a general statement.

Theoretical methods require empirical facts. So, although induction itself is a theoretical logical operation, it still requires experimental verification of each particular fact, therefore it is based on empirical knowledge, and not on theoretical one. Thus, theoretical and empirical methods exist in unity, complementing each other. All the methods listed above are methods-techniques (specific rules, action algorithms).

Wider methods-approaches indicate only the direction and general way of solving problems. Method approaches can include many different techniques. These are the structural-functional method, the hermeneutic method, etc. The extremely common methods-approaches are the philosophical methods:

• metaphysical— viewing an object askew, statically, out of connection with other objects;
• dialectical- disclosure of the laws of development and change of things in their interrelation, internal contradiction and unity.

Absolutization of one method as the only correct one is called dogmatics(for example, dialectical materialism in Soviet philosophy). An uncritical accumulation of various unrelated methods is called eclecticism.